Small-Scale Mining in the Philippines: a Case Study

minor dig (Lives at run a risk in the Filipino coin taps) INTRODUCTION sumptuous is the number adept tapral produced by the Philippines in value terms. Although primitive local anaesthetic anesthetic end product was small relative to foundation occupation, it stratified 2nd to Africa in meretricious deed per unit debark atomic number 18a in 1988 and ranked 29th as top amber manuf turninguring business in 2002(Israel and Asirot 2002). In the year 20022007, the Philippines prosperous production increased by 8. 2%. This contributed an average of 2% gross domestic product (GDP) in the equal period. The country was ranked 18th in the GFMs favorable Survey list of top 20 Gold Producing countries in 2007 (Teves 2008).The 2008 and 2009 information of the Philippine archeological commit farmers calendar showed a signifi tusht amount of coin production by the minor(ip) met eitheric tap trading operations in the country. Re portholes revealed that the sm all(pren ominal) excavation orbit contributed nigh 80% of the total luxurious production. This is equivalent to a Php32B contribution to GDP in 2007 (ibid). The sp argon-time activity 2008 and 2009 data ar based on the amount of luxurious sold to the Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas (BSP). The highest amount of gold produced in the country at 28,198 kg and 26,112 kg, respectively were generated by the pocketable mines (fig. ). Local political relations hosting the sector acknowledged the assiduitys scotch contribution, as it slightlyhow provides aliment to the local union and unemployed unsettleds. There atomic number 18 some reports on the indecent impact of humble digging on the environment, health and human lives. However, query studies documenting the impact of diminished minelaying intentness on the local economy, environment, human health, public safety and the socio-cultural embodiment of indigenous peoples (IPs) in the archeological site field of battles, be l imited.The socio-political dynamics amid pocketable- scale miners and separatewise stakeholders like community and civil society organizations, regulatory bodies, the government and big archeological site companies remains undocumented. There were concerns regarding the implication of some regulatory policies on the pocket-size mine perseverance as the application of much(prenominal) allow for maintain some IP communities from accessing their properties. Furtherto a greater extent, questions arise on the real impact of the industry on poverty alleviation. several(prenominal)(prenominal) theory suggests that the underage industry may watch aggravated poverty beca apply of the s provoket(p) dominion of the industry.While frugalally signifi understructuret, pocketable gold mine has been the target of reinforced opposition in recent broad time chiefly beca usance of its heterogeneous adverse environmental and neighborly stance effects. Foremost of these is he ctogram contamination. BACKGROUND low tap (SSM) refers to minelaying by individuals, groups, families or cooperatives with minimal or no mechanization, often in the informal (illegal) sector of the market. Small-scale tap relies heavily on manual of arms labor and does non use explosives. The scope of the field of view allowed for pocket-sized dig should not exceed 20 hect ares per contractor (1991).In the Philippines, small-scale digging operators include subsistence archeological site (estimated 75%), individual or family businesses (estimated 15%) and complete commercial mining firms (estimated 10%) (Hentschel 2002). According to the unlike interviews and focus group discussions, the operation of small-scale gold mining in the country brush off be traced as early as 10th blow or dismantle since time immemorial in the north and as late as mid-ni clear upies in south Cotabato. Furthermore, numerous foreign studies already investigated the problem of quicksilver be foulment repayable to small-scale gold mining, concentrating on the experience in Brazil.High levels of quicksilver concentrations were found in the hair and blood samples ofthe miners and some other affected people as well as in fish, estate sediments and forest and river eco forms in small-scale gold mining areas of the Amazon region. In the Philippines, several studies likewise looked into mercury pollution based on the experience in Diwalwal, the largest small-scale mining site in the country (e. g. Mahinay et al. 1998, Ba rear endi et al. 1996, Breward 1996, Balce and Cabalda 1992, Williams et al. 1995). High levels of mercury pollution were found on-site as well as in the affected places downstream.Williams et al. particularisedally asserted that at that place were already considerable mercury loads in some sectors of the Agusan River, where Diwalwal drains into, and that the water samples from the mining site itself showed higher(prenominal) concentrations than those i n the other gold rush areas in the world. Although studies on the impact of mercury pollution repayable to small-scale mining were already numerous, they were mostly technical in nature. Few works touched on the frugal aspects of the problem and did so scarcely in a superficial and summary manner.So far, there is no available register that conducted an economic analysis in a more decimal pointed and quantitative elbow room in the Philippines or elsewhere. Small-scale mining is not an alpha public r chargeue-generating sector for the government at stick in because of its largely illegal nature. Viewed in a more positive light, the activity should become a solid tax base when fully license, stipulation the large number of people and economic activities pendant on it. LAWS AND INSTITUTIONS IN SMALL- cuticle MINING Laws The earlier mining law in the Philippines was Commonwealth acquit 137 promulgated in 1936.This legislation had no break dance provision for small-scale mi ning since the activity was not practiced extensively then. It took effect for m either years until the martial law era when it was amended finished chairwomanial Decree (PD) 463, otherwise known as the Mineral Resources Decree of 1974. Like its predecessor, this legislation did not execute separate provisions for small-scale mining. In 1984, PD 899 established small-scale mining as a new dimension in mineral increase and defined it as a specific activity. Succeeding orders based on this law stipulated, among others, the rules and regulations establishment he granting of small-scale mining permits and ordered the merchandising of the gold recovered through the activity nevertheless to the Central Bank and its authorized representatives. During the term of President Corazon C. Aquino, the Congress of the Philippines passed Republic Act (RA) 7076 or the battalions humble mine Act of 1991. Among its important provisions, this law established the Peoples diminished mine Progr am and described the small-scale mining areas that earth-closet be opened under it. During the cheek of President Fidel V. Ramos, RA 7942 or the Philippine Mining Act of 1995 was passed.This law stipulated that small-scale mining go out continue to be governed by the provisions of RA 7076 and PD 1899 and their implementing rules and regulations. Institutions Prior to PD 899 in 1984, no government agency managed small- scale mining since it was not described as a formal economic sector yet. Those take a coursed in the activity did so without any government interference. With the passing of the law, the MGB was given the license to administer small-scale mining. SMALL-SCALE GOLD MINING PROCESS The initial process of gold mining starts with prospecting.In prospecting, the ore quality, vein geologic formation and ore assaying are examined. An area with a good ore quality is prepared for tunneling. In tunneling, holing and drilling are done using pickaxe and shovel. Others who ca n soften it use electric malleus jacks. These initial stages of prospecting and tunneling are the expertise of the abanteros, whose knowledge of gold mining has been shaped by years of experience. In Benguet, the Ibaloi and Kankanaey miners are known Abanteros, having inherited their skills from their ancestors. Some migrant miners from the low res publicas contain in subjoinition learned the skill.In South cotabato, the abanteros came from diwalwal, monkayo, compostela Valley. Mine workers are hired to work on the tunnels. These are the ore and muck ore packers, Atraseros (ore exporters from inside the tunnel), ore washers (usually women), habal-habal drivers, horses and horse owners/guides as transporters of ores from the tunnel site to the touch area. Extracted ores are processed in the ball or rod mill industrial plant for mercury amalgamation. The tailings that beget accumulated for several weeks leave be subjected to further cyanidation in the carbonin-Pulp (ciP) Pla nt.The mercury amalgamation process allow recover 40% of gold from the ores while the cyanidation will recover up to 60% of gold, both refined right after the smelting and/or firing process. Gold produced in button shapes will be sold to licensed gold buyers. A detailed process flow is presented in the following diagram (fig. 2). POWER RELATIONS IN THE area The mine is viewed as a imagination, with various arouse key players aiming to access it and benefit from it. There are several key players in the small-scale mining industry. With respect to the mining operation, the key players include pop owners tunnel owners (individuals or cooperative and association) financiers (foreigners, migrants or local, IPs and non-IPs) the abanteros or skilled miners the mine workers which include the atraseros (ore packers and haulers) ore and sack washers (usually women and early workers) ore transporters (habal-habal drivers, horse owners or guides) affect plant workers gold traders On the trading side, gold produced by the small-mining operations are purchased by the licensed gold buyers and by and by sold to the Bangko Sental ng Pilipinas (BSP).Non-licensed traders are also present in the areas and are comm barely labeled as the dim market. Black market traders would usually reproof the community or are based in the community. Purchase price is note in the gloomy market but the miners save the cost of deportee in going to the city. Because of the savings in conveying, miners are encouraged to sell their gold to the black market. principle and enforcement of policies related to small-scale mining industry are under the tyke Mining Regulatory poster (PMRB).This is composed of the DENR- Mines and Geo Sciences Bureau (MBG) as the chairman and the Provincial Governor as the vice-chairman. The other members of the board are representatives from the SSM Association, large-Scale mining Operators and Non-Government Organizations (NGOs). In Benguet and Sout h Cotabato, a number of local officials are involved in mining either as tunnel owner, land owner or financier. This presents a conflict of quest in the midst of regulating small-scale mining and rent mines. The Abanteros are usually the ones with knowledge, skill and capability to engage financiers because of their prospecting and tunnelling skills.Financiers initially provide funds for the operation of the mine but they are expected to engage with infer slap-upists to expand the operation in the site. Venture capitalists can be foreign investors or locals who hold up the capital to infuse into the industry. Land owners, on the other hand, have the priority access over the resource, being the rightful(prenominal) claimants of the area. However, the land owners usually do not have the skills and the financial capacity to start a mine. Abanteros and financiers can negotiate with land owners to tap the resource.In some brasss, the land owners can be financiers and tunnel owner s, too. Some abanteros who have been successful in mining now act as financiers and tunnel owners some have even managed to operate processing plants. it is common to see big-time tunnel owners and financiers also operate the processing plants in the area. Normally, all plant owners have tunnels but not all tunnel owners have processing plants. Owners of small mining operations with no processing plants pay for the use of existing processing plants, depending on the number of bags processed.MERCURY taint DUE TO SMALL-SCALE MINING The Amalgamation manner of Gold Processing quicksilver gets into the picture in small-scale mining because it is the main agent use to separate the gold from the mined ore employing the amalgamation order of processing. Amalgamation is popular in small-scale mining areas since it is simple to apply and requires relatively low investment. The Carbon-in-Pulp (CIP) method acting of Gold Processing Gold can also be processed using the CIP method. This metho d can process the slurry produced by amalgamation or the mill about ore coming from the rod and ball mills directly.However, CIP is not apply widely in small-scale mining because of the high cost of investment that it requires. The Health involve of Mercury Pollution There are variant slipway by which the amalgamation method of gold processing causes mercury pollution. One way is when mercury is unintentionally spilled into the ground because of careless handling. Another is when mercury is accomplish together with other wastes into inadequate tailings ponds, or worse, thrown away directly into rivers and waterways. Still other way is when zap mercury is released into the atmosphere when the amalgam is blowtorched and refined.Once in the environment, mercury is dangerous because of its potential adverse impact on human health. In the case of water pollution, part of the mercury discharged into rivers and waterways is modify into methylmercury eaten by aquatic species and in turn consumed by people. Once inside the human body, mercury could jaunt neurological disturbances as well as problems in the reproductive and other body organs (Viega 1997a). The believably symptoms are visual constriction, numbness of the extremities and the handicap of hearing, terminology and gait.The release of mercury into the atmosphere during blowtorching also puts to risk human health. The activity is usually done in open containers and turn upd houses so the inhalation of vaporized mercury is highly possible among the people conducting it and those close by. The long-term effect of this type of exposure is the impairment of the metabolism of the human nervous system that last leads to certain neurobehavioral disturbances. The visible symptoms are the exhibition of hypertrophied emotional responses and muscular tremors and gingivitis. PROBLEMS IN SMALL SCALE GOLD MININGPollution due to Aside from mercury pollution, small-scale mining is beset with other problems tha t are also important and pick outing serious attention. These are enumerated and discussed in drawing below. Environmental Problems Cyanide Pollution Pollution due to toxic and hazardous substances other than mercury that are used in small-scale mining can also endanger human health. The highly virulent sodium cyanide used in CIP processing, in particular, could easily kill people and fish when discharged in rivers and waterways. Despite its dangers, cyanide pollution from CIP processing has not been investigated at all in any literature.A probable reason is that, unlike mercury, cyanide is biodegradable and eventually decomposes into carbon dioxide and ammonia (Yannopoulos 1991) making it potentially less harmful over time. disforestation Deforestation is a natural consequence of small-scale mining since galore(postnominal) sites are located in forest uplands. The influx of miners and their families into mining areas results to the clearing of forests for habitation office an d other human activities that causes deforestation. No study investigated in detail the impact of small-scale mining on deforestation.One likely reason is that areas covered by small-scale mining are actually very small when compared to those used for other economic activities like forestry and record (Veiga 1997b). Soil Erosion Soil erosion is some other natural consequence of small-scale mining because of the mountainous and sloped topography of many mining sites. Miners level sloping land and scrape topsoil to make rise up foundations stable for houses and other structures. They develop pathways and roads across highly sloping and erosive areas and cover productive soil with waste materials dug out of subsurface tunnels.There are also no studies that probed in detail the soil erosion effects of small-scale mining although this environmental impact is potentially large. Biodiversity handout The passing play of biodiversity due to small-scale mining is a direct after-math of deforestation and water pollution. Trees are cut atomic number 82 to receding jungles that are natural habitats of terrestrial plant and fauna. Water pollution damages the rivers and waterways that are homes of aquatic plants and animals. As in the case of deforestation and soil erosion, there are no studies that investigated this issue.Siltation and Sedimentation of downriver Water Bodies Siltation and depositary of downstream waterways occur when mine tailings and eroded soil finds their way into water bodies. They shine the viability of affected waterways as fishing grounds, recreation sites and port areas. They also contribute to flooding and hamper the competent functioning of dams and irrigation networks. Like the other environmental problems, siltation and sedimentation due to small-scale mining have authoritative scant research attention. Legal and Institutional ProblemsMining Rights Conflicts between low Miners and Large-Scale Mining Firms Many small-scale minin g areas are situated within the mining claims of large-scale companies. This situation has created conflicts between the large-scale miners on one side and the small-scale miners on the other side and prevented the smooth operations of the mining industry in general. Presence of Medium-Scale Mining Operations in Small-Scale Mining Sites Dominant presences of medium-scale mining operations have been competing for domination resulting in the significant injury of lives and deterioration of peace and order. fond Problems Worsening Social imbalance in Small-Scale Mining Areas Many small-scale miners are migrants in the areas where they mine. Hence, they find it difficult to conform neighborlyly with the local macrocosm. To some extent, vices like potomania and gambling also exist in these areas that add to the conflict. Limited Basic Services in Small-Scale Mining Areas The supply of basic work such as those relating to health and transportation and others has been limited in sma ll-scale mining communities. This has greatly exacerbated the despicable conditions and loving problems within these areas.Exploitation of Women and Children in Small-Scale Mining Women and children are engaged in the gathering of ores inside tunnels and even in processing which are activities suited only for grown- up men. Although small-scale miners deny this, key informants and eyepiece inspection in the two case study areas confirmed this problem ECONOMIC PROBLEMS Low price for Gold Received by Small-Scale Miners Small-scale miners sell their gold to the tunnel owners, processors or to other traders instead of directly to the Central Bank or its representatives.Key informants reported that underpricing of gold often occurs in these market channels and this contributes to the silly economic conditions the miners are in. Loss of Gold by the Country Due to punishable Gold Trading Because small-scale miners sell their gold not to the Central Bank but to various buyers, the m atter government loses great amounts of gold to the detriment of the entire economy. Lack of Formal Sources of Credit for Small-Scale Miners There is lack of formal sources of credit for small-scale miners in times of need or for start an substitute occupation.This forces them to borrow from the tunnel owners, processors, traders and unscrupulous money lenders who exploit them by charging higher interest rank or buying their gold at low prices. Lack of Alternative or Supplemental drill Opportunities for Small-Scale Miners Small-scale mining is the only physical exercise opportunity for many miners. Few have an alternative occupation like farming. Also many miners have been in mining for an average of 10 long years, which further confirms their lack of alternative employment. Technology-related ProblemsInefficient Technologies employ in Small-Scale Mining The technology used in ore extraction and gold processing results to light ore takings and gold recovery in small-scale m ining. The poor ore and gold output performance has been confirmed by national and local key informants. Unsafe Technologies Used in Small-Scale Mining The unsafe techniques and procedures used in the mining of ore, such as poor timbering support, poor ventilation, and other practices have resulted to cave-ins and other accidents that modify or took away the lives of miners.CONCLUSIONS The conflicting policies on resource extraction/development versus environmental protection and weak governance as indicated by the absence of local regulations threaten the environment and public health. The negative impacts of small-scale mining activities have been observed in many of these communities. Poverty and the attractiveness of immediate money from the mining industry attract children and women to work in the mines. These come across women and children to hazardous chemicals and unsafe mining practice.Small-scale mining contributes to the local economy through job creation, increasing ec onomic activity in the communities. There is a need for the development of sound policies and laws to balance economic development and environmental sustainability. Strong enforcement of laws is a must. However, the conflict of interest of local officials who are in charge of regulation and governing the community and who also have interests in mining operations poses a threat in the strict enforcement of laws in the communities. RECOMMENDATIONS Mercury PollutionA review will show that the existing laws and regulations related to mercury pollution in small-scale gold mining are fairly adequate but monitoring and enforcement is weak. To repair on monitoring and enforcement, the following actions are suggested * Licensing by the LGUs of all small-scale gold mining and processing operations within their jurisdiction and imposition of social status in a cooperative as a licensing requirement. * Earmarking of the licensing proceeds for the establishment and operation of a small-scale mining monitoring and enforcement unit within the watchfulness framework of LGUs. Development of an effective internal system within cooperatives that will force the proper use of hand gloves, mercury retorts and tailings ponds in small-scale mining. * nimble involvement of NGOs and other responsible members of the local population in monitoring and enforcement by selectively deputizing them. * strengthen of the Small-Scale Mining Section of the Environment and guard duty Division of the MGB * Concerted effort by the national government, LGUs and NGOs to conduct education and awareness campaigns on mercury pollution. Involvement of international organizations in the fight against mercury pollution particularly in the promotion of technologies that can prevent or minimize it. * Serious musing of the promotion of the CIP method of processing for small-scale mining Other Environmental Problems The national government should compact detailed studies on cyanide pollution, deforesta tion, soil erosion, biodiversity release and siltation and sedimentation in small-scale mining areas. ground these problems will go a long way toward finding their appropriate solutions.For the time being, the government must do go in monitoring and enforcing minded(p) laws so that the problems are minimized. Legal and Institutional Problems The government should prioritize the early gag rule of conflicting claims between small-scale miners and large-scale miners. One way of conducting this is to create dialogues between the two parties with the government as supreme authority to find an amicable solution. Key informant from the large-scale firms in the two case study areas explained that generally they are actually open to a negotiated settlement that can buy peace, goodwill and cooperation within their claims.Social Problems The social instability in small-scale mining is inbuilt in places where many of the population are poor and migrants. Improving the economic status of the people can help a lot to decrease the instability. This could go through when small-scale mining becomes a fully licensed activity and accepted as part of the economic mainstream. The provision of better basic social services will also help alleviate the take economic conditions and ease a lot of the social tensions. The exploitation of women and children is not confined to small-scale mining since it is prevalent, especially in the underground economy.The Department of Social Welfare and Development (DSWD) should take a imminent look at this problem and devise ways to minimize it. Again, improving the economic lot of the miners will help curve the exploitation of women and children. The conduct of effective programs which can provide guidance and counselling to mining families will also promote compliance by the miners to the laws against exploitation. Economic Problems The problem of low price receive for the gold by the small-scale miners will be addressed to a large exte nt when they are organized into cooperatives.As a group, they can negotiate better in the market or pay for the transportation cost to sell gold in hatful to the Central Bank. The Central bank should consider displace up buying stations in the more important mining sites. This will not only help the miners economically but also lower significantly the amount of gold lost to the black market. Technology-Related Problems The problems of inefficient and unsafe technologies are part and pathway of small-scale mining as long as the miners remain poor.Economic conditions force them to use said technologies since they cannot afford to employ more sophisticated and costly ones. Sources * Mercury Pollution Due to Small-Scale Gold Mining in the Philippines An Economic Analysis http//dirp4. pids. gov. ph/ris/rps/pidsrp0202. pdf * A Background Study on the Small-scale Gold mining Operations in Benguet and South Cotabato and their invasion on the Economy, the Environment, and the Community h ttp//bantaykita. ph/pdfs/Small%20Scale%20Mining. pdf * querier News Online http//newsinfo. inquirer. et/305986/small-scale-miners-sell-less-gold-due-to-bsps-7-tax http//newsinfo. inquirer. net/338689/13-men-in-quezon-clash-met-gold-miner http//newsinfo. inquirer. net/343869/gold-miner-says-he-didnt-betray-siman http//business. inquirer. net/106807/miner-sets-aside-digging-turns-to-planting-cacao http//newsinfo. inquirer. net/359389/sleepless-miner-recounts-seeing-friends-buried-alive-2 http//newsinfo. inquirer. net/362277/police-arrest-19-small-scale-miners http//newsinfo. inquirer. net/362687/execs-say-arrests-halted-mindoro-illegal-